CCU uses captured carbon dioxide in a product or process. CCS places captured CO₂ into storage. CDR removes CO₂ from the atmosphere and stores it durably. The origin and final fate of the carbon determine whether removal is possible; the presence of capture equipment does not settle the question. DOE overview
Follow the carbon, not the label
| Outcome | What must be established? |
|---|---|
| Carbon avoidance | Emissions are lower than a defined counterfactual. |
| Fossil substitution | A fossil feedstock is displaced, without assuming net removal. |
| Temporary use | Carbon stays in the product for a limited time and may be released. |
| Durable storage | Retention and reversal risks support the claimed duration. |
| Atmospheric removal | Atmospheric origin, durable storage and net lifecycle removal are demonstrated. |
Fuel synthesis can recycle carbon, but combustion releases it again. Mineralization can retain carbon longer, yet upstream processing can offset the benefit. Product use alone therefore does not establish a net climate benefit. IEA, Putting CO₂ to Use
Analyst reading rule: ask separately where the carbon came from, what energy was used, what product was displaced, and where the carbon ends up. Treat missing answers as uncertainty.