Overview / Technology routes / Carbohydrates
Polysaccharides and sugars
Carbohydrates
Starch, cellulose derivatives, sugars and chitosan, used as binders, co-reactants or extenders.
Overview
Carbohydrates are cheap and abundant, but plain starch and sugar bonds are destroyed by water. Wood-adhesive research therefore uses them modified (oxidised, grafted, dialdehyde) or as polyols reacting with acids, amines or carbonates.
Chitosan is cationic, so it adheres well and forms films. Its cost and solubility in dilute acid restrict it to formulations and coatings rather than bulk panel binders.
Chemistry and bonding mechanism
Main routes are oxidation to dialdehydes (dialdehyde starch or cellulose) that crosslink proteins or amines, esterification with polycarboxylic acids, Maillard-type sugar-amine reactions, and grafting with vinyl monomers.
Hydroxyl-rich networks absorb water unless enough crosslinks or hydrophobic components are added.
Representative structures
Monomers and model units, drawn from SMILES with RDKit. Polymers are shown by a representative unit, not a full structure.
alpha-D-Glucopyranose
Repeat unit of starch (amylose and amylopectin); also a sugar feedstock.
OC[C@H]1O[C@H](O)[C@H](O)[C@@H](O)[C@@H]1OSucrose
Polyol in citric acid-sucrose adhesives and sugar-based NIPU.
OC[C@H]1O[C@@](CO)(O[C@H]2O[C@H](CO)[C@@H](O)[C@H](O)[C@H]2O)[C@@H](O)[C@@H]1OD-Glucosamine (stereochemistry omitted)
Repeat unit of chitosan; the amine gives cationic, film-forming behaviour.
NC1C(O)OC(CO)C(O)C1OPosition and maturity
- Typical products
- particleboard, fibreboard, plywood, paper and laminates
- Incumbent to beat
- UF for interior panels.
- Maturity
- Starch and sugar co-binders and extenders are commercial; carbohydrate-only panel binders are laboratory to pilot scale.
Strengths
- Very low cost; food-grade supply chains; colourless.
What to watch
- Dialdehyde cellulose and starch crosslinkers; sugar-amine binders with standard panel data.
Technical challenges
- Water resistance and susceptibility to mould.
- Competition with food use (starch, sugar) and variable degree of modification.
Cross-cutting: Water and moisture resistance · Viscosity, solids content and pot life · Biological durability and ageing · Cost per qualified bond · Comparable life-cycle evidence
Quarterly track
2026-Q4 · Sept 2026 – Nov 2026
Machine-triaged leads (4)
Sustainable Development of Low‐Formaldehyde Rice Straw Wood Composites via Nitrogen and Chlorine‐Functionalized Starch Integration
Nitrogen- and chlorine-functionalized starch derivatives were added to urea-formaldehyde adhesives, lowering free formaldehyde and raising bond strength in rice straw composites.
“When integrated into commercial UF systems at a 5% solid weight concentration, these derivatives significantly outperformed unmodified starch.”
N/P-containing COF effectively improves flame retardancy of aminated chitosan-oxidized sucrose based wood adhesives
An N/P-containing covalent organic framework improves flame retardancy of aminated chitosan-oxidized sucrose based wood adhesives.
A Mussel-Inspired Chitosan-Based Wood Adhesive with Boiling-Water Resistance and Flame Retardancy
Chitosan, tannic acid and Fe3+ adhesive gave boiling-water shear strength 1.40 MPa and limiting oxygen index 29.70% on treated poplar veneer.
“a chitosan-based adhesive using chitosan (CS), tannic acid (TA), and Fe3+”
Banana fiber reinforced starch-chitosan composites with rice husk ash filler for sustainable non-structural panels
Banana fiber reinforced starch-chitosan composites with rice husk ash filler are developed for sustainable non-structural panels.
2026-Q3 · Jun 2026 – Aug 2026
Machine-triaged leads (8)
Development of a formaldehyde-free adhesive from lactose for wood bonding applications
The record develops a formaldehyde-free adhesive from lactose for wood bonding applications.
Wood Adhesive Based on Lignin-Crosslinked Epoxidized Carboxymethyl Chitosan with High Bonding Strength
A lignin-crosslinked epoxidized carboxymethyl chitosan wood adhesive was prepared in one pot within 5 minutes.
“a lignin-crosslinked epoxidized carboxymethyl chitosan adhesive (L-GCMCS) was developed via a one-pot, rapid in situ preparation process”
Techno-economic and carbon footprint assessment of a novel bio-based wood adhesive
Techno-economic and carbon footprint assessment of small-scale Irvingia-based wood adhesive production in South Africa.
“The results demonstrate that small-scale production of Irvingia adhesives is economically viable and environmentally sustainable”
Chitosan-itaconate and chitosan-maleate as fully bio-based sustainable wood adhesives
The record reports chitosan-itaconate and chitosan-maleate as fully bio-based sustainable wood adhesives.
Sugar-based wood adhesives: a review
Review of sugar-based wood adhesives.
Acetylated, phosphorylated and sulfonated nanocellulose for the modification of urea-formaldehyde adhesive in particleboard production
Acetylated, phosphorylated and sulfonated nanocellulose modified urea-formaldehyde adhesive; acetylated nanocellulose gave the highest particleboard internal bond and reduced thickness swelling.
“NC was modified via acetylation, phosphorylation, and sulfonation.”
Sustainable plywood manufacturing using a sucrose-modified eco-friendly urea–formaldehyde adhesive
Plywood is manufactured with a sucrose-modified urea-formaldehyde adhesive described by the authors as eco-friendly.
Acetylated, phosphorylated and sulfonated nanocellulose for the modification of urea-formaldehyde adhesive in particleboard production - Nature
Acetylated, phosphorylated and sulfonated nanocellulose were used to modify urea-formaldehyde adhesive in particleboard production.
“Acetylated, phosphorylated and sulfonated nanocellulose for the modification of urea-formaldehyde adhesive in particleboard production”
2026-Q2 · Mar 2026 – May 2026
Machine-triaged leads (6)
DETERMINATION OF THE OPTIMAL COMPOSITION OF ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY WOOD GLUE BASED ON OXIDIZED STARCH
Title reports determining the optimal composition of an environmentally friendly wood glue based on oxidized starch; no abstract is provided.
Humin-based bioadhesives for manufacturing particleboard panels
Humin-based bioadhesives were used to manufacture particleboard panels.
A formaldehyde-reduced phenolic adhesive featuring multi-scale wood bonding: Utilizing dialdehyde xylan for enhanced performance and sustainability
A formaldehyde-reduced phenolic adhesive using dialdehyde xylan is reported for multi-scale wood bonding with enhanced performance and sustainability.
“A formaldehyde-reduced phenolic adhesive featuring multi-scale wood bonding: Utilizing dialdehyde xylan”
Chitosan as a green additive for reducing VOC emissions in plywood
Chitosan is examined as a green additive for reducing VOC emissions in plywood.
Wood that bonds itself via homologous adhesion through cellulose reconstitution - Nature
A Nature report describes wood bonding itself through homologous adhesion by means of cellulose reconstitution.
“Wood that bonds itself via homologous adhesion through cellulose reconstitution”
Regulation of bonding performance in cellulose-based adhesive and adhesive film via wood surface activation
The study regulates bonding performance in a cellulose-based adhesive and adhesive film through wood surface activation.
2026-Q1 · Dec 2025 – Feb 2026
Machine-triaged leads (9)
Preparation of glucose-based resin adhesive under ambient conditions with excellent bonding and water resistance for plywood bonding
A glucose-based resin adhesive is prepared under ambient conditions with excellent bonding and water resistance for plywood bonding.
Reducing curing temperature of multifunctional sucrose / tannic acid-based wood adhesive via catalysis method for improved water resistance and bonding strength
Catalysis lowered the curing temperature of a multifunctional sucrose/tannic acid-based wood adhesive, improving water resistance and bonding strength.
“sucrose / tannic acid-based wood adhesive via catalysis method for improved water resistance and bonding strength”
Mussel-inspired gallic acid/cellulose-based adhesive with boiling-water-resistance for bonding wood
A mussel-inspired gallic acid/cellulose-based adhesive is reported with boiling-water resistance for bonding wood.
Performance enhancement of wood composites using cellulose-reinforced cornstarch–tannin adhesives derived from electrical-assisted extraction
Cellulose extracted from almond shell waste reinforced cornstarch–tannin adhesives, and the resulting formaldehyde-free particleboards met EN 312 mechanical standards.
“The resulting formaldehyde-free particleboards exhibit enhanced mechanical properties, meeting EN 312 standards.”
Phytic Acid Crosslinked Chitosan Adhesive for Wood Composites with Enhanced Water Resistance and Flame Retardancy
Phytic acid crosslinked chitosan adhesive is developed for wood composites with water resistance and flame retardancy.
Wood adhesive based on a blend of polyvinyl alcohol and guar gum cross-linked with boric acid
A wood adhesive was prepared from a blend of polyvinyl alcohol and guar gum cross-linked with boric acid.
Carboxylated cellulose nanofibers reinforced polyvinyl alcohol adhesive films with oxidative interfaces for eco-efficient wood bonding
Carboxylated cellulose nanofibers reinforced polyvinyl alcohol adhesive films with oxidative interfaces were developed for eco-efficient wood bonding.
A swallow's nest-inspired unmodified starch hard phase-reinforced adhesive for room-temperature curing with high bonding strength and mildew/fire resistance
An unmodified starch hard-phase-reinforced adhesive inspired by swallow nests is reported for room-temperature curing with high bonding strength and mildew/fire resistance.
Assessing the impact of interaction between starch and emulsifier on the performance of starch-based adhesive: Adjusting the alkyl chain lengths of sodium sulfonate
The interaction between starch and sodium sulfonate emulsifiers with varying alkyl chain lengths is assessed for starch-based adhesive performance.
“Assessing the impact of interaction between starch and emulsifier on the performance of starch-based adhesive”
Key literature
- Dunky M. (2020). Wood adhesives based on natural resources: a critical review Part II. Carbohydrate-based adhesives. Reviews of Adhesion and Adhesives. doi:10.7569/raa.2020.097310 review
- Ji X., Guo M. (2018). Preparation and properties of a chitosan-lignin wood adhesive. International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives. doi:10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2017.12.005 research
- Hemmilä V., Adamopoulos S., Karlsson O., Kumar A. (2017). Development of sustainable bio-adhesives for engineered wood panels – A Review. RSC Advances. doi:10.1039/C7RA06598A review